The Origin Of Human Resource Management Management Essay

The Origin Of Human Resource Management Management Essay Introduction: A single universally acceptable definition of HRM could hardly be found in this universe. Definition varies according to the author and probably they altogether refer organizational management activities in wider sense or in relations to employees welfare , or a strategic approach to people management (1). Human Resource Management provides an international forum for discussion and debate to promote the understanding of the importance of human resource management and people management to business strategy. Human resource management (HRM), as defined by Bratton, J. Gold, J. (2003), is A strategic approach to managing employment relations which emphasizes that leveraging peoples capabilities is critical to achieving sustainable competitive advantage, this being achieved through a distinctive set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practices. According to this definition, we can see that human resource management should not merely handle recruitment, pay, and discharging, but also should maximize the use of an organizations human resources in a more strategic level. To describe what the HRM does in the organization, Ulrich, D. Brocklebank, W. (2005) have outlined some of the HRM roles such as employee advocate, human capital developer, functional expert, strategic partner and HR leader etc. New challenges arise even now for the organization, and it is certain that new challenges will never cease to emerge. Therefore, the use of proper Human Resources techniques is a really powerful way for organizations to overcome these challenges, and to improve not only their quantitative goals but also their organizational culture, and their qualitative, cognitive aspects. Take our 20 best people away, and I will tell you that Microsoft would become an unimportant company (Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft in Fortune, November 25th, 1996). This clarifies that how important is HRM for the development of business. In the global recession period HRM could play an important role in reducing the recession. organizations do not owe their success solely to market realities and sustainable competitive advantages, rather successful companies are those that consider their human capital as their most important asset. HRM and Personnel management: People however often get confused with the term personal management as a HRM. Though they possess similar characteristics they are indifferent to each other. People should be aware that HRM is strategic in nature that is, being concerned with directly assisting an organization to gain sustained competitive advantage. Whereas personnel management is about the maintenance of personnel and administrative systems. HRM is more proactive than Personnel Management. Furthermore, a valuable contribution of HRM is to direct the attention to regarding people as the key resource of organisations and lending the management of personnel increased importance. Personnel management refers to a set of functions, for example, recruitment and selection, often performed effectively but with little relationship between the various activities, or with overall organizational objectives. HRM, in contrast, assumes that all personnel activities are integrated with each other and strategically with organizational objectives (Nankervis, Compton and McCarthy, 1999, pp.4-5). Main differences between Personnel management and HRM: Personnel management is workforce centered, directed mainly at the organizations employees; such as finding and training them, arranging for them to be paid, explaining managements expectations, justifying managements actions etc. While on the other hand, HRM is resource -centered, directed mainly at management, in terms of devolving the responsibility of HRM to line management, management development etc. Personnel Management is basically an operational function, concerned primarily with carrying out the day-today people management activities. While on the other hand, HRM is strategic in nature, that is, being concerned with directly assisting an organization to gain sustained competitive advantage. HRM is more proactive than Personnel Management. Whereas personnel management is about the maintenance of personnel and administrative systems, HRM is about the value of organizational needs, the continual monitoring and adjustment of personnel systems to meet current and future requirements, and the management of change. Strategic HRM: Strategic HRM, as it has come to be known, is concerned with the development and implementation of people; strategies which are integrated with corporate strategies and ensure that the culture, values, structure of the organization, quality, motivation and commitment of its members; contribute fully to the achievement of its goals (Armstrong, 1991; cited in Armstrong and Long, 1994). More and more companies are proactively involving HR in the earliest stages of generating the business plan, rather than just letting HR reacts to it (Dessler, 1997; p. 19). One of the central themes of strategic HRM is its use of the term strategic, which incorporates planning, a congruous approach to the management of HR systems, and seeing employees as a source of competitive advantage (Hendry and Pettigrew, 1986). Strategic HRM seeks to ensure that all business planning processes realize that the ultimate source of value is people, and that the firms distinctive competencies and the types of people who are needed to build and maintain them are identified (Stone, 1995; p. 9-10). Such a view makes HRM an equal partner in the strategic planning process (Dessler, 1997; p. 22). The management of people is not a distinct function but the means by which all business strategies are implemented. (Armstrong and Long, 1994; p. 44). Strategic HRM is a response to change (Ezzamel, 1996: p. 76). By managing this change well, a competitive advantage can be gained through the matching of HRM to business strategy (Kamoche, 1991:p. 3). Effective HR strategies have now become the distinguishing factor among successful organizations and economies (Stone, 1995:p. 10). However, it must be realized that strategic HRM will not guarantee success it is not an instant pudding (Armstrong, 1994: p.54) Hard and Soft Models of HRM: HRM has been frequently described as a concept having two diametrically opposite, though not necessarily irreconcilable, languages: soft and hard. Soft HRM emphasizes communication, motivation and leadership (Storey, 1989: p. 8; Boxall, 1996: p. 59). It is associated with the human relations movement and McGregors Theory Y view of individuals (Truss et al, 1997: p. 54), and it assumes that employees will work most effectively if they are fully committed to the organization (Lundy, 1994; cited in Truss et al, 1997: p. 56). This model emphasizes on the varieties of stakeholders as shareholders,different group of employers, the government and the community. HR strategeis should reflect on all these groups and fuse them into the Human resource strategy and ultimately the business strategy (1). In contrast to this, Hard HRM or the matching model emphasizes the quantitative, calculative and business-strategic aspects of managing the headcounts resource in as rational a way as for any other economic factor (Storey, 1989: p. 8). This form of HRM focuses on the importance of the HR policies being closely linked to the strategic objectives of the organization, resulting in a competitive advantage (Storey and Sisson, 1993; cited in Truss et al, 1997: p. 55). In contrary this model is the process of deployment of human resources to meet business objectives. These two forms grew from roots developed within the infancy stage of HRM. The excellence movement influenced the development of soft HRM, while hard HRM was the result of strategic concern (Kamoche, 1991: p. 4). Critics of Hard and Soft Models of HRM: Ultimately, there is a conflict between elements of self-expression within the soft model, and organizational direction in the hard model. Although both versions have been taken from quite distinct intellectual traditions, they have been amalgamated into one general model that is HRM. The results from a study by Truss et al (1997) found that no single organization adopted either a pure soft or hard approach to human resource management. Though the rhetoric may be the soft version, with its foundation in communication and employee commitment, the reality of organizational goals almost always brings HRM back to the hard model (Truss, ET AL, 1997: p. 70). As a result of such inconsistency between hard and soft HRM, the credibility of HRM will continue to remain a problem (Vaughan, 1994: p. 28). In every approach, there are advantages and disadvantages. The hard approach would mean that rules, regulations and goals are clearly defined and adhered to, however, it would mean that employees will not be involved in decision-making and that may result in a decrease in motivation and commitment. The soft approach, on the other hand, although may increase motivation and commitment since employees are involved in the organization, it may prove to be chaotic if clear-cut rules and goals are not made clear as this may affect the firms profits and goals. HRM and Performance: The different roles exercised by HR managers and employees has resulted positive performance. The involvement of hrm not only increases employers skills,relation but also help in organizational performance ,productivity and growth. The given fig illustrates the relation between hr activities/roles, hrm outcomes and business performance(1). Definition: HR Manager: Human Resource manager is the person who responsible for total management of the same department optimizing the human capital to the greatest possible limit. HR manager practices HRM functions within an organization. In other words he or she is the heart of the organization who keeps the whole system alive by a list of rational activities. A good manager is the intimate friend of all employees with whom all can share business and even individual related matters that affect the performance of the organization in the short or long run. The traditional role: The traditional HR role was mainly recruitment,training and retention based where it is very much narrow and limit the potentials of both HR and employees. The repetition of the same working cycle made them unenthusiastic to a great extent but the matters concerning the employees affecting the productivity have increased the responsibility of HR.A number of study has changed the conventional roles of HR. Nowadays a HR even has to think about psychology of current employees which is the most interesting apart from influencing strategic decisions in broader perspective. High power distance: This is one of the crucial characters of traditional HR functions. In the organizational framework there were huge gaps between employees and HR. Ultimately miscommunication easily happens due to poor understanding between employees and higher officials. Low efficiency: In early days HR used to be less efficient but in coming days new sets of standards are set frequently to be an efficient HR. For example it was unimaginable to think that a manager would consider psychological aspects as well. Administrative confinement: In past days HR used to confine themselves in only administrative works but today they are more strategic and he is responsible for important decisions taken by the organization. He has to think about not only present but also future needs of the employees besides in early days there was much less motivation practice among the HR. New hr/Modern HR practices: The major contributions of HR comes from two sources: Service Delivery Facilitation roles The first one deals with recruitment and retention of staffs and confirm that they have required skills where as the second one concerns about motivation to get the best output from employees. But both these inputs can be at the operational and strategic levels depending upon business objectives. In the protection of organizational values HR has a leading role. One of the major features in new HR managers is adaptability. The role of the HR manager must match the needs of his or her shifting organization. Successful organizations are becoming more adaptable, flexible, quick to change direction, and customer-centered. Within this environment, the HR professional, who is considered necessary by line managers, is a strategic partner, an employee sponsor or advocate and a change mentor. At the same time, especially the HR, still has responsibility for employee benefits administration, often payroll, and employee paperwork, especially in the absence of any other employees .So it suggests that HR must be multi skilled. He should have strong capacity building power having other official skills. Depending on the size of the organization, the HR manager has responsibility for all of the functions that deal with the needs and activities of the organizations people including these areas of responsibility. Recruiting Hiring Training Organization development Understanding cultural diversity Work- life balance communication performance Management/Rewards and recognition Coaching Policy recommendation Salary and benefits Team building Employee relation Leadership Psycho analyst and contract By the start of twenty first century HR need to be aware of risks linked with cost cutting. The British National Health Service has long been criticized for inefficient use of resources, so large numbers of managers and administrators have been recruited to make things more efficient. Many of these new-recruits are HR people who may be perceived by health professionals as creating inefficient and costly controls at the expense of employing more health professionals. We are not suggesting that these criticisms are necessarily justified, but there are undoubtedly situations in which the criticisms are justified.( Dereck Torrington ET AL. 2006, Human resource management, Prentice Hall.) The scope of human resource planning covers not only numbers of people and skills, but also structure, culture, systems and behavior.( Dereck Torrington ET AL. 2006, Human resource management, Prentice Hall.) HR is responsible for making code of conducts or any other disciplinary issues relating to employees and organization being aware of the safety and others needs of the Employees. (With all of this in mind, in Human Resource Management Dave Ulrich, one of the best thinkers and writers in the HR field today, and a professor at the University of Michigan, recommends three additional roles for the HR manager.) HR Role: Business and Strategic Partner In todays organizations, to guarantee their viability and ability to contribute, HR managers need to think of themselves as strategic partners. In this role, the HR person contributes to the development of and the accomplishment of the organization-wide business plan and objectives. The HR business objectives are established to support the attainment of the overall strategic business plan and objectives. The tactical HR representative is deeply knowledgeable about the design of work systems in which people succeed and contribute. This strategic partnership impacts HR services such as the design of work positions; hiring; reward, recognition and strategic pay; performance development and appraisal systems; career and succession planning; and employee development. To be successful business partners, the HR staff members have to think like business people, know finance and accounting, and be accountable and responsible for cost reductions and the measurement of all HR programs and processes. Its not enough to ask for a seat in executive table.HR people will have to prove they are the business minded necessary to sit there. HR Role: Employee Mentoring As an employee sponsor or advocate, the HR manager plays an integral role in organizational success via his knowledge about and advocacy of people. This advocacy includes expertise in how to create a work environment in which people will choose to be motivated, contributing, and happy. Fostering effective methods of goal setting, communication and empowerment through responsibility, builds employee ownership of the organization. The HR professional helps establish the organizational culture and climate in which people have the competency, concern and commitment to serve customers well. In this role, the HR manager provides employee development opportunities, employee assistance programs, gain sharing and profit-sharing strategies, organization development interventions, due process approaches to problem solving and regularly scheduled communication opportunities. HR Role: Change Champion The steady assessment of the effectiveness of the organization results in the need for the HR professional to frequently champion change. Both facts about and the ability to perform successful change strategies make the HR professional exceptionally valued. The HR professional contributes to the organization by constantly assessing the effectiveness of the HR function. Knowing how to link change to the strategic needs of the organization will minimize employee dissatisfaction and resistance to change. He also sponsors change in other departments and in work practices. To promote the overall success of his organization, he champions the identification of the organizational mission, vision, values, goals and action plans. Finally, he helps determine the measures that will tell his organization how well it is succeeding in all of this. Evolution of HR function: The following fig explains the developing stage of Hr functions. Hr when introduced just include the personnel benefits of employees as payrolls,benefits,etc. With the changing environment and changing technology the hr functions get stretched and now Hr not only look about employee security and rights it practices Top level management corresponding to organizational strategy which is termed as Strategic HRM roles. Source:( http://empxtrack.com/blog/wp-content/evolution-of-hr-function.jpg) The benefits of Human Resource Management: There is correlation between the HRM strategy and the overall corporate strategy so ,the Human resource management has its significance in a planning the activities of Management and the activities of resources which involves the implementation of Human resource management in primary activities such as acquisition, development, compensation and maintenance. Where, Acquisition entails the hiring of workers most likely to help an organization achieve its goals. The development function encompasses the training of workers to perform their tasks in accordance with organization strategy. This activity also involves organization efforts to control and change employee behavior via reviews, appraisals, incentives, and discipline. Compensation covers the payment of employees for their services. Maintenance requires structuring labor relations-the interaction between a companys management and its unionized employees-and ensuring compliance with federal and state employment laws. Finally, the evaluation function includes the assessment of a companys HRM policies to determine whether they are effective. Managing the Human resource benefits the organization in a huge way, Such as : Sustaining stable workforce levels during ups and downs in output, which can reduce unnecessary employment costs and liabilities and increase employee morale that would otherwise suffer in the event of lay-offs? Preventing a high turnover rate among younger recruits. Safe Work Environments Reducing problems associated with replacing key decision makers in the event of an unexpected absence. Making it possible for financial resource managers to efficiently plan departmental budgets. Training and development activities benefit the overall organization as well as the individual as more productive. Human resource maintenance activities related to safety and health usually entail compliance with federal laws that protect employees from hazards in the workplace. Helps to simulate, analyze and experiment with proposed organizational changes and previous organizational models. It helps to attract, retain, and motivate the best people. Managing HRM find the best people and then manage and track candidates throughout the entire recruiting process. Sustaining High-Performing Employees Practices of HRM: HR has many roles to be implemented within an organization. Organization smaller or bigger atleast entertain some hr practices. The early records shows there were less practices of hr. The 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey(WERS98)(Cully ET all,1999) investigated 16 hr practices which resulted the practices were well observed in British workplaces, where 3 practices (formal disciplinary and grievance procedures, team briefing and performance appraisal) were widely observed. However job security ,participation in problem solving groups etc were in minority. The result showed only one out of five workplaces more than 16 hr practices. On the other hand only 2 percent of workplace didnt practice at all(Guest ET AL,2000). HRM in multinational companies are in a debate. The countrys business policy, political environment etc hinder the practices of HR. different border sets different rules and policy. For ex A us based company doesnt impinge on Canadian firms, similarly UK firm doesnt impinge on the Irish business system(1). The MNS should implement more centralized strategy which is beneficial to their employee. An adoptable employment strategy should exists regardless of institutional character of national business systems where they locate subsidiary operations. Investment in Human capital Due to globalization the world has become a small village and a new economy emerges where it necessitates investment in human capital, knowledge, commitment, enthusiasm of the employees. So the focus has shifted from physical assets to intellectual capital. The emerging new economy has several features: Consists of global work forces with increasing optimization of skills Higher speed of technology and innovation Creation of abundant business opportunities It decentralizes the power It rewards openness People becoming greatest capital. Practical case of HR roles in Finland and abroad: Finland applies a wide variety of hr practices. For ex MC Donald has been using different practices as reward through base pay. Employee holiday travel, pension,training,bonuses,etc are other roles widely practiced in Finland. For example recently an it firm in Finland was offering an programming specialist job, where they were training selected candidates for the first 9 month. This is a training based pay practices of HR functions which is vigorously applied from a simple cleaning job to an highly skilled job. Similarly Yahoo initiates performance related pay (PRP) during recession only among the 5% officials who were in top levels as well to reduce the dependency upon the lower employees and thus it cut the cost though unfortunately many had to leave the job. Nokia is also practising Hr in a wider sense. The development of human resources is a business proposition, which endeavors to delight its costumers, motivates its employees and increase the agility and flexibility of the management to address specific HR needs. Furthermore, The HR manager is challenged with the task of providing skills,cultures,atmosphere and processes necessary fore- knowledge and capabilities. Nokia beleieves in the importance of individual either its an individual,employer or an stakeholders. Critiques: The HR functions have been changing with the time. Some author argues is it really necessary for the changes in Hr function. What else matter in organizations rather than employees performance. If an employee is faithful to organization , he or she devotes fully to organization well being. However bonus or certain rewards are acceptable but does an employee really needs to be motivated by HR specialist if organization is treating well? Has the new changes benefited to the employers,stakeholders and ultimately the organizations? The answer is surely yes. Even though the organizations are practicing HR roles why the state/firm faces strikes of workers and globally increasing trade unions which interfere in employee and employer relations. There are many unanswered questions and a debate too. On the other hand many consider steps like performance related pay PRP is a capitalist approach which may breaking the unions and inter personal relationship though there is no doubt the whole tasks of HR has become more challenging with the pace of globalization. Summary: Organizations today recognize that human resource (HR) is their key asset to gain an edge over competition and achieving organizational success and effectiveness. Thus, human resource management (HRM) has now become an emerging field in the business world and a key ingredient for staying abreast of competition. Within most large organizations, HRM has taken on much the same role as Personnel Management, but with some additions, particularly in regard to business strategy. However, HRM essentially involves the policies and practices one need to carry out the human resource aspects of a management position, including recruiting, screening, training, rewarding, and appraising (Dessler, 1997; p. 2). This issue of integration with the general management is an important one for HRM. There is already some evidence to indicate that when senior management manages HR issues they are taken more seriously. A properly functioning HRM system is an invisible asset that creates value and involves the acquisition, development, reward and motivation, maintenance and departure of an organizations human capital. On the contrary, if hr managers should try to implement a strategy which is fruitful and acceptable to both top level management and employers working for it. HR managers should frequently deal with the company strategy, progress and its treatment to the workers. Hr managers should play as a driver who conquers both passengers(employee) and employers(bus) to have a smooth drive.

How Volunteer Work Has Changed My Life Essay -- Community Service, Ser

"He who wishes to secure the good of others, has already secured his own." - Confucius   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Christmas in October Program is an annual event I participated in that helps someone who is less fortunate by fixing up their home. It is a two-day event where exterior and interior work is done on a home. The program requires a company to sponsor the project, and volunteers to do the actual work. It is called Christmas in October because it takes place in October, but feels like Christmas because of its memorable effect. Participating in the Christmas in October Program was the most meaningful work I've done because of its lasting effect on me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Christmas in October was very meaningful to me because it changed my feelings about volunteering. Before I participated in the program, I didn...

Hard Times: Struggle Of Fact Vs Imagination And Struggle Between Two C :: essays research papers

Hard Times: Struggle of Fact vs Imagination and Struggle Between Two Classes Charles Dickens' novel, Hard Times, is a story of two struggles--the struggle of fact versus imagination and the struggle between two classes. It takes place in Coketown, and industrial-age English city. The novel is divided into two sections. One deals with the struggle of upper class members of society and their struggle to learn the value of imagination. The other involves a working class man who is trapped by those in that upper class who trap him in a dreary existence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas Gradgrind, the father of Louisa, Tom, and June not only stresses facts in the classroom in which he teaches, but also at home to his family. Thomas has brought up his children to know nothing but facts. Everything is black and white,right or wrong-- nothing in between. He discourages such fanciful motions as going to the circus or having flowered carpet. Everyone knows, one cannot have flowered carpet. One would trample all over them and they would end up dying.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Hard Times, two classes are relevant in Coketown. The upper class, which were few in numbers, are dominant over the middle class, which is larger in numbers. Stephen Blackpool represents the working class. He is a warm- hearted man trapped in thes run down society. He feels he deserves this mediocre lifestyle. Blackpool was originally employed under Bounderby, but is fired for standing up for his beliefs. This type of behavior was totally unacceptable during the period of time as it involved imagination and independance. Bounderby portrayed himself as a self-made man,when in fact, he had eveything handed to him with a silver spoon. His mother gave him the very best of everything, including a wonderful education. This demonstrates that the upper and middle classes were not just two different classes, but two different

Simulation †Case Study

Kathy, the project manager, obviously did not have the people skills or knowledge of the culture needed to be successful on this project. Had she researched the culture, listened to her team members, and worked with them rather than over them, this project would have been more successful. Also she should implement incentives for the team. The problems facing Kathy are that her team resented her, drug their feet, and caused the project to not meet the deadline. Her team resented her because she pushed them too hard as she did not take her people’s culture, feelings, expectations, and work habits into consideration. This caused the team to drag their feet, as a short term problem, and cause the long-term problem of ultimately missing the deadline. The decision facing Kathy was how to get the team to work more efficiently. Since Kathy did not take her team into consideration and cause her team to resent her. Without the ability to read people and sympathize with them, it is difficult to effectively manage people. Lacking this ability cause Kathy’s team to resent her and drag their feet. Had she taken the time to get to know her team and their work habits, she would have known that pushing them without giving them breaks would not have worked. They became bitter toward her and her ethics and caused more problems for her than necessary. Instead of working a round-the-clock schedule, and pushing and demanding the team to work beyond their capability, Kathy could and should have taken different approaches. Above all she should have worked harder to understand her team better and work with them rather than above them, or given them incentives for their work. Unfortunately, giving incentives can cause people to cheat through their work instead of doing their best, but most people would use the incentives as a means for motivation to do their best and meet the expectations of the project. Working long hours is usually a given when working with close deadlines, but requiring the team to work round-the-clock is a bit much. Kathy could have petitioned to hire more people or extend the deadline. Hiring more people could put the project over budget, but the project could have been completed more efficiently and on time. Moving the deadline could cause people to relax more, but if given more time to complete from the beginning, it could have reduced a lot of the stress put on Kathy and the team. If I were Kathy, I would take time to understand the people she works with, implement incentives for making deadlines, and petition to hire more people. As soon as she met with her team she should have gotten to know them and taken the time to understand their work ethic. As soon as the team started to fall behind, more people should have been hired to make up the time. The project manager should get their hands dirty and dive in to help make the deadlines. Cut the project into phases. Say the foundation has to be done by a certain time. Let the team know that if they make that deadline the will receive an incentive, and if the team surpasses that expectation, they get a better incentive. I would make it a dinner if deadline met, and an afternoon off if the team has started the next phase before the deadline of the first phase has come. This would cause the team to want to do better and go beyond their expectations which would cause the project to be complete by the deadline and hopefully within budget.

David Mccullough’s “1776” Essay

David McCullough, who has won Pulitzer Prize and National Book Awards two times impresses in his book† 1776 â€Å" that the year 1776 is one of the most significant years in annals of U. S. A . McCullough segregates his book not by key military skirmishes but by negligible incidents with major consequences on those skirmishes. McCullough in his book â€Å"1776† lucidly explains the triumphant American siege of Boston in 1775, the catastrophic defense of New York City against irresistible British troops in the late summer of 1776, the Continental Army’s close encounter with dissolution and failure and its excellent dead-of-winter success over the Hessians and the British at Princeton and Trenton as 1776 gave way to 1777. According to McCullough, General Washington was not without flaws but as a military inexpert who was out-generaled by his British adversaries. By demonstrating the intensity to which American fortune had descended by mid-November 1776, McCullough lauds the triumph in Trenton and illustrates that how American heroism is yet again demonstrated. McCullough restricts himself to events that occurred in a single calendar year and a little more. Further, he zeros in on a single person –General Washington. McCullough prose is stylish, sturdy and has a novelist style of structure and pacing. The choice of year 1776 is wise one as it was the year of roller-coaster ride in terms of American military triumphs. â€Å"1776† began on a high note when General Henry Knox, taking the benefit of severe winter weather, employed sledges and barges to transport about sixty tons of cannons and mortars down from Fort Ticonderoga in northern New York and across snow heaped Massachusetts countryside. 1 Negotiating anxiously in the night, General Washington troops successfully placed the artillery atop Dorchester Heights, facing Boston Harbor, in early March 1776. Though, the city was under the control of British, they were now openly exposed and the British had no other choice but to withdraw. The three key chapters of book are categorized as follows; ? The Siege ? Fateful Summer ? The Long Retreat In the first chapter â€Å"The Siege†, McCullough narrate the military features of war. It is to be recalled that the title â€Å"The Siege† was coined after the fortifications made at Dorchester Heights. In this chapter, McCullough recounted insight to the minds of combatants on each side of the skirmish with excerpts from letters written by soldiers. At that point of time, warriors on each side were under the impression that they had the enough motives to fight but did not realize that it would soon transform. Howe, the general on the British side was a man of action and had not any patience to wait and wanted to settle his score with American troop instantly. However, General Washington was most concerned about the inexperience and lack of knowledge of his warriors. Further, adding fuel to the fire, there was shortage of firearms and ammunitions on American side which had made General Washington to worry about. At this juncture, McCullough recalled the exact words used by General Washington when he narrated this precarious situation to his brother through a letter. â€Å"We had fewer bullets than riffles and not adequate riffles for every soldier and not enough soldiers to succeed into the war. † The shortage of firearms for rebels was such that General Washington had issued precondition to those who wanted to join him to fight against British to bring firearms with them from the farm. This scenario aptly illustrates how American side was in wobbly condition as regards to firearms and ammunition as compared to the mighty British army. Further, in this Chapter, McCullough describes the information exchanged by General Washington with his wife through letters which detailed the problems and pitfalls faced by rebels and how American army was handicapped and devised its strategy against the mighty British. However, as per McCullough, General Washington was highly diplomatic as he never revealed how frantic the scenario was to American soldiers at that juncture. In one another letter to his brother, General Washington was of the opinion that he wanted to be an enlisted warrior rather than holding the position of General and always concerned for the soldier’s morality. At the conclusion of the first chapter, McCullough narrates that fortunately General Knox arrived in Dorchester with much wanted cannons and due to this, the future looked very dazzling for the American soldiers. The second chapter has been named as â€Å"Fateful Summer† since General Washington was under impression that the destiny of unborn millions now reckon on his success. General Washington cautioned his troop that failure was not an option and at any cost, they must achieve success. Major portion of this chapter devotes to memoirs of General John Sullivan, Major Joseph Reed and General Rufus Putnam. McCullough recalls that there is absence of unity among colonies at that juncture. Since, majority of the generals were from South, they had feeling that they were superior to generals hailing from North. McCullough reveals this through the conversation that had occurred between General Washington and General Graydon as they vouched that â€Å"Yankees were despondently organized† and did not visualize that the northern regiments would be able to safeguard their position in battle. However, Southern leadership found that they had a misconception on the strength of the northern regiments when they vigorously wrestled and won in Bunker Hill and in Lexington. McCullough illustrates that majority of men who has joined the regiment at that juncture were from northern colonies. McCullough also refers General Washington’s quote that he did not envisage any concern with Negroes who have then freed from their slavery but was not especially consonant with them in his status and rank. McCullough also portraits young soldiers who have joined the regiment did not have any discipline as no proper training were imparted to these young new recruits. Further, these young soldiers were also affected by sexually transmitted diseases when they had relationship with prostitutes who roamed the New York City at that time and there was also shortage of medicine to cure them. According Washington estimate, he lost more 10,000 soldiers due to prevalence of small box and venereal disease. This chapter ends with note that though American suffered a big defeat, however they were united in their cause and had plans to flee away to New York to settle their scores in another day. The third and final chapter is named as â€Å"Fortune Frowns†. In this chapter, McCullough explains how Washington informed their defeat to Congress. McCullough uses most of the letters written by Washington to his wife in this chapter to narrate the incidents. However , Washington never exchange military or warfare strategies with his wife this time as in the past but gave instruction about how interior had to be organized in his residence. With defeat in the Battles of Long Island and Brooklyn, Washington, his troops and the nation were witnessing very hard time. In his letter to Governor Trumbull which was written on December 14, 1776, Washington mentioned that he wanted to assume risk to any extent and all that he needed was a bit of luck. Washington also unraveled in that letter that his strategy was to cross the Delaware during the dark and wage an attack on Trenton engulfing from three sides. This time there was excellent cooperation among the commanding generals. Washington strategy worked well and attack after crossing Delaware during dark was a remarkable triumph for Washington. McCullough in his concluding part of the book made a high note about the success in Trenton battle. McCullough in his book â€Å"1776† narrates several inspirational speeches delivered by General Washington to his soldiers from his horse back. It is to be observed that General Washington’s greatest talent was his capability to inspire even the most timid soldier to become courageous enough to wrestle. Success in Trenton has proved American heroism once again. McCullough wish to remind us that Americans have to value their ancestor’s grand sacrifice and if Americans fail to recognize the same, freedom may slip away from them. The moral of the book is that sole purpose to remind the battle against British in the year 1776 is to conserve the good deeds accomplished for Americans in the past so that American can prepare for the tasks and trials which still lie ahead. Hence, this is history as a structure of national rearmament that is why it harmonizes so nicely with the embattled nation temper. BIBILIOGRAPHY Countryman, Edward. â€Å"1776. † The Historian 69, no. 1 (2007): 120+. Daniel Lazare,†Patriotic Bore: 1776 by McCullough–book review,† The Nation, 281[7] [2005]:p. 31-37. Kingseed, Cole C. â€Å"1776. † Parameters 35, no. 4 (2005): 128+.

Culture and It’s Elements Essay

Culture (Latin: cultura, lit. â€Å"cultivation†)[1] is a modern concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the Roman orator, Cicero: â€Å"cultura animi†. The term â€Å"culture† appeared first in its current sense in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, to connote a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the 19th century, the term developed to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-19th century, some scientists used the term â€Å"culture† to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to â€Å"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history†.[2] In the 20th century, â€Å"culture† emerged as a central concept in anthropol ogy, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term â€Å"culture† in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Distinctions are currently made between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture and everything else,[3] the intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term â€Å"culture† SOCIAL ORGANIZATION  · Creates social structure by organizing its members into small units to meet basic needs.  · Family Patterns: family is the most important unit of social organization. Through the family children learn how they are expected to act and what to believe.  · Nuclear family: wife, husband, children. This is a typical family in an industrial society (US).  · Extended family: Several generations living in one household, working and living together: grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins. Respect for elders is strong.  · Social classes: rank people in order of status, depending on what is important to the culture (money, job, education, ancestry, etc.) CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS  · Rules of Behavior are enforced ideas of right and wrong. They can be customs, traditions, rules, or written laws. RELIGION  · Answers basic questions about the meaning of life.  · Supports values that groups of people feel are important.  · Religion is often a source of conflict between cultures.  · Monotheism is a belief in one god.  · Polytheism is a belief in many gods.  · Atheism is a belief in no gods. LANGUAGE  · Language is the cornerstone of culture.  · All cultures have a spoken language (even if there are no developed forms of writing).  · People who speak the same language often share the same culture.  · Many societies include a large number of people who speak different languages.  · Each language can have several different dialects. ARTS AND LITERATURE  · They are the products of the human imagination.  · They help us pass on the culture’s basic beliefs.  · Examples: art, music, literature, and folk tales FORMS OF GOVERNMENT  · People form governments to provide for their common needs, keep order within society, and protect their society from outside threats.  · Definition of government: 1. Person/people who hold power in a society; 2 Society’s laws and political institutions.  · Democracy: people have supreme power, government acts by and with consent.  · Republic: people choose leaders who represent them.  · Dictatorship: ruler/group holds power by force usually relying on military support for power. ECONOMIC SYSTEMS  · How people use limited resources to satisfy their wants and needs.  · Answers the basic questions: what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom.  · Traditional Economy: people produce most of what they need to survive (hunting, gathering, farming, herding cattle, make own clothes/tools).  · Market Economy: buying and selling goods and services  · Command Economy: Government controls what/how goods are produced and what they cost. Individuals have little economic power  · Mixed Economy: Individuals make some economic decisions and the government makes others.

The Importance of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice

Set in late 18th Century England, Pride and Prejudice depicts the search of women for the ‘inevitable' husband and of a male dominant society, within which no woman can be considered truly successful without the assistance of a man of ‘good fortune'. Austen addresses the common ideals of society throughout Pride and Prejudice, such as the monetary values of marriage and the need of a woman to find security for herself and her future children. The opening line of the novel reads ‘It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. Austen not only uses this line to introduce a key theme of the novel, but also hints at the underlining themes of the novel and at the irony and satire due to follow. This is also a use of proleptic irony, Elizabeth is considered as a woman who seeks true love, rather than a marriage based on the fortune of the male; however, upon seeing Pemberley Austen presents Elizabeth as considering money for the first time, the sheer size of the house impresses her and thus she cannot disregard its appeal. During both the 18th and 19th centuries marriage was regarded both a social and biological destiny for woman across all the classes. Austen portrays this belief through Charlotte Lucas whom after gaining some composure considers â€Å"Without thinking highly either of men or of matrimony, marriage had always been her object; it was the only honourable provision for a well-educated young woman of small fortune, and however uncertain of giving happiness, must be their pleasantest preservative from want† (Austen,J. 1853: 22). This amplifies the importance of the rejection of marriage by Elizabeth to Mr Collins, whom by the opinions of society at the time, the natural reaction for a woman in her situation would have been to accept. For she cannot afford to be overly choosy when it comes to marriage – earlier on in the novel Austen describes Mr Bennett cautiously going through the accounts of the estate, in which we are indirectly informed that the accounts are not looking positive. This marriage rejection is also relevant to the life of Austen, who we have learnt rejected a marriage proposal after overnight mentation. Marriage during the 18th and 19th centuries would be a whole family affair, and thus the effects of a marriage proposal or rejection would be felt throughout the generations. Families would look to ally themselves with other families of similar rank, hence marriage between cousins was common practice. This would ensure that both wealth and property would remain within the same family for generations via entailment, thus explaining the disappointment of Mrs Bennett upon finding out of the rejection of marriage between Elizabeth and Mr Collins. Moving to their husbands' establishment would often be the only possible freedom available to girls, though not to be confused in any way with independence, which girls at the time would be lacking. This was another reason that leading families would ally with one another, or often marry within – a family would never wish for their daughter(s) to be associated with a family of lower social value, and thus a smaller estate, or require any future financial support from them – this dependence would grow increasingly expensive and as Austen presents the Bennetts as a family with some financial troubles there is no question as to why she identifies the need for the daughters to be married off. With marriage being the ultimate goal for any young girl within Pride and Prejudice, events leading up to any such event are considered significant. For example, any balls or dances and the partnerships which develop within these; any ‘chance' encounters, such as meetings within town. Marriage would be a key theme of conversation within social circles of girls beyond puberty, the legal age for marriage was 16 (or the age of ‘coming out'), it was much desired by the age of 18 and would threaten to be beyond availability for girls of 20 or older. Girls would worry about being considered an ‘old maid' beyond the age of 20 which explains the desire that Austen presents Charlotte to have in ‘catching' Mr Collins and the warning that Mr Collins gives Elizabeth, who upon rejection of Mr Collins' proposal is already 21. Though the legal age of marriage in England was 16, due to the Marriage Act of 1853, it is assumed that Lydia and Wickham elope to Gretna Green in order to complete their marriage, rather than be living in sin and thus have society look down on them as an unlawfully acquainted couple – in Scotland was not necessary to live in each others' company for a minimum of 3 weeks prior to marriage like it was in England, thus allowing for an instant marriage. Much like the partnership between Darcy and Elizabeth we are made to wait for them to be partners in dance, it is a recurring theme throughout the novel that the longer the time period before the first dance between a couple the longer the time period will also be before they are romantically interested in one another. â€Å"To be fond of dancing was a certain step towards falling in love† (Austen, J. 1853: 6), thus the reluctance of Darcy to participate in dancing earlier on in the novel marks his limited social availability. However he becomes more available to Elizabeth later on in the novel as Austen presents him as someone whom is interested in being acquainted with Elizabeth and thus he asks her to dance, though even the act of doing this is portrayed as being difficult for him to achieve. The partnership between Elizabeth and Darcy is a stark contrast to that of Jane and Bingley, which Austen develops from the introduction of the two parties – they dance at the first meeting of one another and are thus romantically involved with one another from this point. Mr Bennett is presented by Austen as a man who is interested in the happiness of his daughters, though namely Lizzy, he is rarely phased by the actions of Lydia, Jane or Mrs Bennett however upon learning of Mr Collins' proposal states â€Å"Your mother will never see you again if you do not marry Mr. Collins†¦ And I will never see you again if you do. † (Austen, J. 853: 64) Austen uses this conversation as a means of demonstrating the understanding and respect that exists between both Lizzy and her father, with Mrs Bennett already having come to the conclusion that Mr Bennett would insist on Lizzy marrying Mr Collins, however in this scene Austen also manages to portray a subtle humour – we read earlier on in the novel of Mrs Bennett's ‘nerves' and this is just another example of Mr Bennett knowing how to vex her, with the reader remembering earlier on in the book when Mr Bennett states â€Å"You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these last twenty years at least. † (Austen, J. 1853: 4). With Lizzy being truly her father's daughter she knows that she will have the support of the parent who means the most to her, or at least the parent whom she is more interested in pleasing. Mr Bennett plays a pivotal role in the marriage of Lizzy, he has the final say on whether or not she marries Darcy, throughout the novel Austen doesn't portray any form of interaction between Mr Bennett and any of his other daughters or their respective partners regarding the issue of marriage. Though this may be due to Elizabeth's importance to the novel, we assume that this is also due to the value of her partnership with Darcy and how this is used to show her romantic development throughout the novel. Austen presents Elizabeth as a character who goes through the typically romantic process of falling in love with someone – both Elizabeth and Darcy must overcome a variety of obstacles in order for their love to Blossom, their story starts with bad first impressions of one another, with Lizzy assuming Darcy to be a pompous, arrogant man and Darcy being blinded by Lizzy's social inferiority. Austen wrote this novel based in an era within which girls being forced in to marriages for financial reasons was coming to an end and though monetary reasons were still considered a valid reason for marriage, or at least one for which marriage would be considered acceptable by one's family, people were also marrying due to love for one another. Lizzy represents the new era within which love is the main reason for marriage or courtship, we recognise this as Lizzy is aware of Darcy's fortune from an early stage of the novel, however she dismisses him due to his arrogant behaviour – if Lizzy was only interested in his wealth, or if this were the reason of her interest in Darcy then Austen would have ensured that she, like her other sisters, flaunted herself in front of a male of such high social value. Austen represents marriage for the ‘wrong' reasons with the marriage between Mr and Mrs Bennett. With Mr Bennett having previously married Mrs Bennett for her youth and good looks, with Mrs Bennett declaring â€Å"I certainly have had my share of beauty, but I do not pretend to be anything extraordinary now. â€Å", he now finds his only happiness through private study or mocking his wife, referring to her ‘nerves' as his ‘old friends', with his witty humour being too complex for her to understand and thus not being able to tell when he is using sarcasm. This sarcasm is a trait which Lizzy shares, for example in Chapter 28 when describing Miss De Bourgh, Lizzy states â€Å"She looks sickly and cross. Yes, she will do for him very well. She will make him a very proper wife. † This use of juxtaposition is rife in Austen's work and is often used for comic effect. Austen uses the juxtaposed relationship between Lizzy and Darcy to present us with an example of marrying for love, rather than superficial reasons which are evident throughout the novel. Examples such as Mr Collins and Charlotte Lucas, or Lydia and Wickham are doomed to fail, or at least to result in the severe unhappiness of the parties involved due to the basis of the relationships being built on financial security or social status. Lizzy and Darcy represent a marriage which ignores the superficial values and focuses on true love, Austen shows us as the reader that this is the only way to have a truly successful and happy marriage to one another and she manages to gain our agreement by portraying the other possible choices throughout the novel.